“There can surely be nobody so petty or so apathetic in his outlook that he has no desire to discover by what means and under what system of government the Romans succeeded in less than 53 years in bringing under their rule almost the whole of the inhabited world” (Polybius). Rome’s aggressive imperialist policies in the early second century BC brought her into conflict with states and tribes in Greece, the East, Africa, Spain and Gaul, leading to the extraordinarily rapid creation of a Mediterranean-wide empire. But conquests and her expanding empire led to changes and major upheavals within Roman society. Tensions arose within the functioning of the Republican political system, leading to internal unrest, destructive civil wars, and eventually the fall of the Republic. This module examines the principal events of 202–31 BC; the motives for and methods of Rome’s expansion in the Mediterranean; the effects of empire on Roman political institutions, economy, and religious and social values; the crises and conflicts of the late Republic involving land tenure, distribution of wealth, the army, the Senate, tribunes, urban discontent, and power struggles amongst the elite, leading to the domination of Julius Caesar and paving the way for the establishment of the Empire.

• demonstrate a knowledge of the main events and changes in the Roman state from 202–31 BC, and the causes of these changes.
• demonstrate a knowledge of the main literary sources for this period and an ability to compare the accounts of different ancient sources in relation to their aims and methods.
• demonstrate an awareness of differing modern views on and interpretations of these events (in particular on the nature of Roman imperialism, religious change, ‘democratic politics’ in Rome, and theories on the decline of the Republic).
• discuss these issues in written work with coherent and logical arguments, clearly and correctly expressed.

30 lectures and 6 seminars; independent study; 1 coursework feedback tutorial 

The lectures provide an introduction to a particular topic, establishing the key points of major course themes, identifying important issues, and providing guidance for more in-depth reading. They aim to provide a basic framework for understanding, and should be thought of as a useful starting-point for further discussion and independent study. Slides and handouts, where appropriate, are used to illustrate the material discussed. 

The seminars provide an opportunity for students to analyse and discuss key issues and topics in the module, and to get feedback on their ideas from the tutor and their peers. Handouts with material for study and suggestions for preparatory reading will be circulated prior to the seminars. 

Independent study enables students to familiarise themselves with the primary source material and the most important modern approaches and debates on the subject. A reading list is provided, with guidance on key items of reading for major themes. 

Coursework feedback tutorials provide students with an opportunity to get feedback and guidance on all aspects of their written work.

• assimilating and synthesising complex information and ideas
• critical thinking skills, such as analysing and evaluating evidence, critiquing interpretations or arguments, and challenging assumptions
• constructing and defending arguments based on evidence
• clear, accurate and effective communication of ideas and arguments in writing and in debate
• employing basic skills and conventions in the presentation and use of literary and material evidence
• bibliographic and referencing skills
• contributing to group discussions
• using IT resources effectively
• independent working and time management

The module will be assessed through a 2000-word essay, a class test, and an exam consisting of two essay questions. 

The essay and exam questions will require knowledge and critical deployment of evidence and an awareness of modern scholarship to answer questions and construct arguments relating to the history of the late Roman Republic. 

The class test is divided into factual questions and a source criticism exercise. The factual questions test students’ knowledge and understanding of the period. In the source criticism exercise, specific written or material sources relating to the history of the period will be set, and students will have to assess their significance, thus deploying their knowledge of the period and interpretations of it. The sources will be selected from the material discussed in lectures and seminars.

The opportunity for reassessment in this module

Students who fail the module will normally be expected to resit the failed component(s) in the summer resit period

• the main events of the period 202–31 BC
• the development of the Roman political system and its weaknesses, the role of the Senate, tribunes and people
• Rome’s wars and territorial expansion; her establishment of alliances and use of diplomacy; Rome’s motives for war and overseas conquest
• the effects of empire, increasing wealth and Hellenization on the Roman state, religion and Roman society
• the growing tensions in the Roman state associated with land reform, the army, the extension of citizenship, and increasing urban unrest, and attempts by individuals to address them
• the rise of powerful individuals in the late Republic and the senatorial response to them
• the collapse of the Republican system of government, and theories of the collapse

Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin, or online through Lacus Curtius)

Livy, Dawn of the Roman Empire. Books 31–40 (Oxford World’s Classics)

Appian, The Civil Wars (Penguin, or online through Lacus Curtius)

Plutarch, Roman Lives (Oxford World’s Classics, or online through Lacus Curtius)

M. Beard and M. Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic (second edition, 2000)

K. Bringmann, A History of the Roman Republic (2007)

P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (second edition, 1986)

M.H. Crawford, The Roman Republic (second edition, 1992)

H. Flower (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2004)

H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero (fifth edition, 1982)

H.H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World 753–146 BC (1991)

More advanced:

P.A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic (1988)

Cambridge Ancient Historyvols VIII–IX (second edition)

E.S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974)

W.V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 BC (1979)

N. Rosenstein and R. Morstein-Marx (eds.), A Companion to the Roman Republic (2006)

D.L. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979)

R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939)

You can also check out the bibliography in Crawford 1992.

See the module handout for the full reading list.